A-level经济学知识点：定价策略 Pricing trategie

A look at different pricing strategies a firm may use to try and increase profitability, market share and gain greater brand loyalty. 看一下公司可能使用的不同定价策略，以试图提高利润率、市场份额和获得更大的品牌忠诚度。

Types of pricing strategies 定价策略的类型
General strategies 一般策略Profit maximisation 利润最大化. One strategy is to ignore market share and try to work out the price for profit maximisation. In theory, this occurs at a price where MR=MC. In practice, it can be difficult to work this out precisely. 一种策略是忽略市场占有率，试图制定出利润最大化的价格。在理论上，这发生在MR=MC的价格上。在实践中，要精确地计算出这一价格可能很困难。Sales maximisation 销售最大化. Aiming to maximise sales whilst making normal profit. This involves selling at a price equal to average cost. 目的是在赚取正常利润的同时实现销售最大化。这包括以等于平均成本的价格进行销售。Gaining Market Share 获得市场份额. Some firms may have a target to increase market share, this could involve setting prices as low as they can afford, leading to a price war. A similar concept to sales maximisation. 一些公司可能有一个增加市场份额的目标，这可能涉及到将价格定到他们能够承受的最低水平，从而导致价格战。这与销售最大化的概念类似。
Pricing strategies to attract customers / increase profit 吸引顾客/增加利润的定价策略Premium pricing 溢价定价. This occurs when a firm makes a good more expensive to try and give the impression that it is better quality, e.g. ‘premium unleaded fuel’, fashion labels. 这发生在一个公司使商品更加昂贵，试图给人以质量更好的印象，例如，”优质无铅燃料”，时尚标签。Loss Leaders 亏损领先 This involves setting a low price on some products to entice customers into the shop where hopefully they will also buy other goods as well. However, it is illegal to sell goods below cost, so firms could be investigated by OFT. 这包括对某些产品设定低价，以吸引顾客进入商店，希望他们也会购买其他商品。然而，以低于成本的价格销售商品是违法的，所以企业可能会受到公平贸易局的调查。Price Discrimination 价格歧视. This involves charging a different price to different groups of consumers to take advantage of different elasticities of demand. There are different types of price discrimination from first degree to third degree. 这涉及向不同的消费者群体收取不同的价格，以利用不同的需求弹性。有不同类型的价格歧视，从第一级到第三级。Reference Pricing 参考定价. This involves setting an artificially high price to be able to later offer discounts on previously advertised price. 这涉及到人为地设定一个高价，以便以后能够在先前的广告价格上提供折扣。Price Matching 价格匹配. The purpose behind price matching is making a promise to match any price cuts by your competitors. The argument is that this discourages your competitors from cutting price. This is because they know there is little point in cutting prices because you will respond straight away. Very clear price matching stances can thus avoid price wars and give the impression of being very competitive. For example, Tesco is offering ￡10 voucher to customers who can prove their shopping basket would have been cheaper at other supermarkets. 匹配价格背后的目的是承诺匹配你的竞争对手的任何降价。其理由是，这可以阻止你的竞争对手降价。这是因为他们知道削减价格的意义不大，因为你会立即作出反应。因此，非常明确的价格匹配立场可以避免价格战，给人以非常有竞争力的印象。例如，乐购向那些能够证明他们的购物篮在其他超市会更便宜的顾客提供10英镑的代金券。Retail price mechanism RPM 零售价格机制RPM – when manufacturers set minimum prices for retailers, e.g. net book agreement. 当制造商为零售商设定最低价格时，如净书协议。Psychological pricing 心理定价. Setting price at important psychological levels to trigger purchase, e.g. selling good at ￡9.99 to make it appear cheaper. Some firms use reverse psychology and charge exact prices, e.g. clothes for ￡40 to indicate quality rather than cheapness. 将价格设定在重要的心理水平，以引发购买，例如以9.99英镑出售商品，使其看起来更便宜。一些公司使用反向心理学，收取准确的价格，例如，衣服为40英镑，以表明质量而不是便宜。Premium decoy pricing 溢价诱饵定价. Where a firm sets the price of one good deliberately high to encourage demand for a lower price. e.g. a car company may bring out a top of the range sports car, which is very expensive to make the general brand more attractive. 公司故意将一种商品的价格定得很高，以鼓励对较低价格的需求。例如，一家汽车公司可能会推出一种顶级的跑车，其价格非常昂贵，以使一般品牌更具吸引力。Pay what you want 想付就付. A situation where consumers are left free to decide how much to pay, e.g. restaurants cafe where there is no cost – only tipping. When music companies release a new recording and ask for donations. 让消费者自由决定支付多少钱的情况，例如，餐厅咖啡馆没有成本–只有小费。当音乐公司发布新唱片并要求捐款时。Bundle pricing 捆绑定价. When a firm gives special offers, e.g. buy 3 for the price of 2 – very common for book sales e.t.c. 当一家公司提供特别优惠时，例如以2元的价格购买3个，这在图书销售中非常普遍。Price skimming 掠夺价格. When a firm releases a new product, it initially sets a high price to take advantage of those consumers with inelastic demand. Over time, the price is reduced to attract those customers with more price elastic demand. 当一家公司发布一种新产品时，它最初设定一个高价，以利用那些没有弹性需求的消费者。随着时间的推移，价格被降低，以吸引那些具有更多价格弹性需求的客户。Penetration pricing 渗透定价. When a firm sets a low price to help establish market share and get established. For example, a new printing company may offer very low price for its printers to get established. Then it gets to make profits on selling ink and over time increase the price. Or satellite tv company offering introductory offer for a few months. 当一个公司设定一个低价，以帮助建立市场份额和建立起来。例如，一个新的印刷公司可能为其打印机提供非常低的价格，以建立起来。然后，它通过销售墨水获得利润，并随着时间推移提高价格。或者卫星电视公司提供几个月的介绍性报价。Optional pricing 可选定价. When a firm tries to receive a higher price by selling extras. For example, if you buy a DVD, you can get sold insurance or additional features. 当一个公司试图通过出售额外的东西来获得更高的价格。例如，如果你买了一张DVD，你可以得到销售保险或额外的功能。Dynamic pricing 动态定价. When prices are regularly updated in response to shifting market conditions. For example, if an airline receives high demand for certain flights, it will increase the price to help fill up other departure times and maximise revenue from the flight. 当价格根据市场条件的变化而定期更新时。例如，如果一家航空公司收到对某些航班的高需求，它将提高价格以帮助填满其他出发时间，使航班收入最大化。
Pricing strategies to cement market share/market position 巩固市场份额/市场地位的定价策略Limit pricing 限定价格. This occurs when a monopoly set price lower than profit maximisation to discourage entry. This enables the firm to make supernormal profit, but the price is still low enough to deter new firms to enter the market. 这发生在垄断企业将价格定得比利润最大化低，以阻止进入。这使公司能够获得超常利润，但价格仍低到足以阻止新公司进入市场。Predatory pricing 掠夺性定价. Selling price below cost to try and force rival out of business. Predatory pricing is illegal. Predatory pricing can be made easier through cross Subsidisation. This occurs when a big multinational may use profits in one area to subsidise a price war in another. The cross subsidisation enables a firm to sell a product very competitively (or even at a loss) to try and force the rival firms out of business. 以低于成本的价格销售，试图迫使对手退出市场。掠夺性定价是非法的。掠夺性定价可以通过交叉补贴而变得更容易。这发生在一个大型跨国公司可能利用一个地区的利润来补贴另一个地区的价格战。交叉补贴使一个公司能够以非常有竞争力的方式（甚至是亏本）销售产品，以试图迫使竞争对手的公司退出业务。
Pricing strategies to help determine the price 帮助确定价格的定价策略Average cost pricing 平均成本定价. When a firm sets the price equal to average cost plus a certain profit margin. 当企业将价格设定为等于平均成本加一定的利润率。Market-based pricing 基于市场的定价. When firms set a price depending on supply and demand. For example, if football clubs, used market-based pricing, clubs like Manchester United would probably increase the ticket price – because, at the moment, all tickets are sold out – suggesting price is below the equilibrium. 当企业根据供应和需求来确定价格时。例如，如果足球俱乐部，使用基于市场的定价，像曼联这样的俱乐部可能会提高票价–因为，目前所有的票都卖完了–表明价格低于均衡水平。Markup pricing 加价定价. This involves setting a price equal to marginal cost of production + x. (where x = the profit margin a firm wants to make on each sale) 这包括设定一个等于生产的边际成本+x的价格（其中x=公司希望在每次销售中获得的利润率）Profit maximisation 利润最大化. Setting price and quantity so MR=MC 设定价格和数量，使MR=MC
Importance of Elasticity 弹性的重要性

If demand for your products is highly elastic, cutting prices should lead to an increase in revenue. Increasing prices will lead to a fall in revenue.If demand is price inelastic, then you can increase your profits by increasing your price. 如果对你的产品的需求是高度弹性的，那么削减价格应该导致收入的增加。提高价格将导致收入下降。如果需求是没有价格弹性的，那么你可以通过提高价格来增加你的利润。
This is the logic behind price discrimination. Firms charge a higher price to that market segment where demand is more price inelastic, but a lower price to where demand is more price elastic. 这就是价格歧视背后的逻辑。企业对需求更缺乏价格弹性的那部分市场收取较高的价格，而对需求更具有价格弹性的地方收取较低的价格。
What will determine the most effective pricing strategy? 什么会决定最有效的定价策略？
The optimal pricing strategy will depend on the type of firm. For example, if you are considered to having a premium brand – cutting price could be perceived as disastrous as you lose your brand image, and fail to increase sales. For these products, it might be better to maintain premium pricing and optional pricing. For normal goods, with firms looking to increase market share and gain more market dominance, it is more important to offer competitive prices, through strategies such as penetration pricing and even loss leaders.
最佳的定价策略将取决于公司的类型。例如，如果你被认为拥有一个高端品牌–降价可能被认为是灾难性的，因为你失去了你的品牌形象，并且不能增加销售。对于这些产品，保持优质定价和可选定价可能会更好。对于普通商品来说，由于企业希望增加市场份额并获得更多的市场主导权，通过渗透定价甚至亏本定价等策略，提供有竞争力的价格更为重要。